Index
What to write ...
Describe clearly and accurately, what you have done, and what it means.
> Examples of writing that require attention
Writing Research Reports and Scientific Papers
This document incorporates points made in an article by Warren D. Dolphin (Iowa State University). The present draft has been extensively extended and adapted. A research report is a public document, written to inform. If it is written well it will benefit the author for the rest of their lives. If written badly it will remain a permanent embarrassment.
Scientists write papers, articles and books. That is what they do: what they are paid for. They work in laboratories and libraries to generate something meaningful to write about, so they get promoted and paid. Their published work is sometimes read only by other scientists, who test their ideas against their own. Their work is sometimes read by politicians, investors, and the general public. Eventually, in this way, new ideas come into the public domain, and become part of the accepted body of scientific opinion.
HeadingsMost scientific papers, and articles in Physics, have the same format.
- Title
- Abstract
- Introduction
- Materials and Methods (Procedures)
- Results
- Discussion
- References
Note 1: a Bibliography is a list of references which may or my not have been quoted. A bibliography is sometimes included at the end of a book or article.
Note 2: a more explicit heading can be constructed with a colon.
For example:
Introduction: background information
Data: measurements of refractive index and temperature
Analysis: maximum density
Discussion: corrections for the expansion of the glass
Note 3: For IB purposes additional headings are inserted and the abstract is omitted. The list becomes....
- Title
- Introduction
- Hypothesis
- Explanation
- Materials and Methods (Procedures)
- Data
- Analysis
- Discussion
- Evaluation
- Acknowledgments
- References
Note: there is general agreement among scientists as a whole, and physicists in particular, that each section of a report will contain specific types of information, but different journals and different publishing houses, have slightly different requirements. In particular, IB examiners set out specific assessment criteria.
Title
The title is the single most important statement of the entire document. Titles are normally contain no more than ten words. They describe the factual content of the paper. Titles include key words that researchers in a particular field will recognize.
Abstract
A concise (100 to 200 word) summary of the purpose of the report, the data presented, and the author's major conclusions. Many people will read the abstract - looking for articles that are worth their time to read.
Introduction
The introduction defines the subject and provides background, so the reader can hope to understand the rest of the report. An introduction often begins with a brief review of the historical development of the idea. Very often conflicts, and gaps in existing knowledge are discussed ..... to explain why the current study was performed.
The specific purpose of the study is stated in the introduction. The specific experimental design is described. A research report, essay etc., may have a stated hypothesis, but most do not. The formation of what could be termed an hypothesis is often restricted to informed speculation, which is appropriate, if identified as such.
Materials and Methods
The materials and methods used in the experiments are described in this section. Enough detail is provided for a reader to understand the experiment without overwhelming them. This can usually be done in short paragraphs, with photographs and/or diagrams of the equipment used. It is important to describe the procedures as though they were your own and not copied from some list. Use past tense, passive voice, and write paragraphs - not numbered laundry lists.
The two sections below, Data and Analysis, are often called Results Data (figures and tables and graphs)
Data is presented without discussing the implications. The data section includes table, figures, graphs, photographs, and so on. Data included in a table is not normally duplicated in a figure or graph but students are instructed to include tables of raw data in reports intended for IB assessment.
All figures, tables etc. have a descriptive title, and/or caption. Legends, explaining symbols, abbreviations, and special methods used are included. Figures and tables are numbered separately.
Label graphs ... Graph 1 ... Graph 2 ... Graph 3 ... etc.
Label tables ... Table 1 ...Table 2 ... Table 3 .... etc.
Label figures ... Fig 1 ... Fig 2 ... Fig 3 ... etc.
Figures and graphs are referred to in the text by number.
Examples:
1 The measurements are listed in table 1.
2 Graph 1 is a straight line through the origin.
3 The activity is proportional to the time, as shown in figure 1.
> Advice on the presentation of graphs
Leaders
Insert a space between the title above a photograph or graph. Insert a space between the caption below a photograph or graph.
Analysis
In this section the data is interpreted, with careful descriptions of what the graphs mean. The section concentrates on general trends and differences - not on trivial details.
Many authors organize and write the Data and Analysis sections before the rest of the report.
Discussion
Findings are related to existing theory and knowledge. The logic that allows the acceptance or rejection of an original hypotheses (if there is one) is explained. Informed speculation is appropriate, if identified as such.
Evaluation
The sources of errors are discussed. The success, or otherwise, of the chosen procedures is evaluated. Ways in which the data could be made more accurate or more extensive in the future are suggested, under the sub heading 'Suggestions for further work'.
References
The last pages of a book, paper, or essay, list articles or books cited in the report. References are listed in order, according to the superscript numbers in the text, or, if the writer prefers, in alphabetical order by surname, using initials. Levi S. is followed by Lewis A.R. etc. [See Extended essays for details]. In scientific work, the authors name comes first, followed at once by the date of publication, and then the subsequent details.
Acknowledgements - thanking people for interest and assistance could be put on this page, or, if the writer prefers, on a page of their own, after the title page. It is most unusual (astonishing) to thank one's parents and/or God.
> IB Research Reports in Physics
Combining math and text
Insert math into text like this
The friction force (F) is proportional to (N) the normal force.
The friction force is given by ...
F = mN ... where m is the coefficient of friction.
1 The equation is in the middle of the page on a line by itself with a line missed (skipped) above and below. The dots used in this document to link the equation into the run-on sentence are optional. Many authors omit all punctuation.
2 If there are several lines of math, miss a line between each. Put the equals signs in a line, one below the other.
3 Type all symbols in equations in italics. Type subscripts and superscripts in Roman (not italics), at a smaller font size.
4 Define all symbols.
PunctuationPunctuation serves to eliminate ambiguity. In scientific writing it is helpful to insert commas between every member of a list. Write ... marbles, stones, and lead sinkers.
Use a colon before a list that is separated with commas. Write ... Apparatus was designed to measure: the amplitude, the period, and the energy of the motion.
Use semicolons when members of a list themselves contain commas. Write ... It was found necessary to: eliminate vibration, by inserting padding: eliminate the effect of friction, by adding a rider; and to improve the ultrasound reflections, by mounting a spherical reflector on the cart.
Add italics when a word must be emphasized to make the meaning clear. Write ... Momentum is conserved in all collisions. The principle is never violated.
Put words in bold type when they serve as both text and a subheading at the beginning of a paragraph.
The Curie temperature of a ferromagnetic metal is the temperature
at which the metal suddenly becomes paramagnetic. Nickel has a relatively
low Curie temperature and is more suitable for this demonstration than alloys
of iron.Put a word in bold type if it is the first time it has been used in a document and must be defined.
Music from a dynamic speaker may be distorted
by wow and flutter. Wow can be described as ...Put vector symbols in bold type.
The magnetic field strength, B, is increased by the presence
of the ferromagnetic core.Acronyms such as CD and LED usually have an apostrophe before the s when made plural. CD's and LED's ...
TenseMost scientific papers are written in the third person, avoiding the use of I and we. The facts are the facts, independent of the opinions and expectations of the authors. The rule is not absolute. There are times when an occasional use of we to report a discussion or opinion is appropriate, although some editors do not allow it under any circumstances. If I or we are used, they most often occur in the middle of a sentence, almost never as the first word.
Results and procedures are reported in the past tense using was and were, had been, and similar constructions. Discussions and evaluations may have sections in the present using is, or future, using will be. The important thing is to sustain the same tense in the same sentence or paragraph.
VoiceMany scientists write only in the passive voice.
The more dense solutions were found to decay more rapidly at higher temperatures. (Passive voice)
The more dense solutions decayed more rapidly at higher temperatures. (Active voice)
The active voice is more direct and often a more natural way of expressing an idea, but it must be used carefully. Actions that imply intent cannot be ascribed to inanimate objects.
The computer showed that the acceleration was constant. (Uncomfortable)
Computer calculations showed that the acceleration was constant. (Acceptable)
The computer was programed to calculate the acceleration, which was found to be constant. (Comfortable)
Be mindful that words convey meaning
What you write must mean what you intend it to mean, without implying something that is not true, or being ambiguous.
Read what you have written ALOUD. Read what is there; not what you intended to be there. Ask yourself whether what you read is what you really mean. Try to avoid ambiguity.
For instance ... "The pendulum is important in history."
The meaning of this statement is not clear. You might think that people have used pendulums at various times in the past, and found them to be important in some way, but; was it the pendulum itself that was important? Was it the use of pendulums in clocks, that consequently kept good time, that was important? What does the writer mean by ..... in history? I am uneasy; the construction seems wrong. Putting the statement in a different form, in context, might read this way....
Abstract
The length of a simple pendulum is defined as l, the distance from the fixed pivot to the center of gravity. The period, which is the time for one complete swing, is defined as T. For a simple pendulum, T2 has been found to be proportional to l, to within ± 0.2%.
Introduction
In 1850, pendulum clocks were expensive instruments, of great importance for the smooth running of English society. The clocks of the day were accurate, because the period of the pendulum could be adjusted by turning a screw that changed its length.
Research Question
In what way does the period of a simple pendulum depend on its length?
Hypothesis
...
Procedure
A simple pendulum was made by attaching a small 50 gram lead ball to a rigid support with a light string. The length of the string was varied. The time for 20 swings was measured for each length, with a hand-held digital stop watch. The period was found by dividing the measured times by 20.
etc ...
Delete words that do not add meaning
Be succinct when you write. Delete phrases like ... The fact that ... In order to ... this is because the ... What we decided to do was ... In this experiment we ...
Pay attention to the following:
1 ... greater acceleration ... not ... faster acceleration. (Faster describes speed, not acceleration.) ... fewer errors ... not ... less errors (errors are countable) ... less time ... or ... less than five seconds ... (five seconds is a continuous period of time) ... more data ... and ... less data (data is always plural). Avoid the common incorrect term - g-forces. (g is an acceleration - not a force.)
2 Which and that cause confusion. They mean almost the same thing. Use that unless the word introduces the second part of a sentence, which contains new information. A comma precedes which - otherwise use that.
3 Avoid the sentence beginnings ... However, ... I ... and ... We ...
4 Pay attention to details
Avoid hypothesis and hypothesized in paragraphs. Use expected.
Use: x-ray ... not X-ray .. or X ray.
Electricity is a subject not a thing. If you mean electric current, write current.
A spectrum may be continuous ... not continual.
It's has an apostrophe when it means it is,. It's is uncommon in science writing.
In the Peltier effect and similar constructions ... the word is effect not affect.
The plural of radius is radii ... and of diameter is diameters.
Phenomena and criteria are plural. Phenomenon and criterion are the singular forms.
Data and spectra are plural. Datum and spectrum are the singular forms, but avoid using datum. Write data point, and more (or fewer) data points.
Use component for vector addition. Substitute part in most other situations.
Be careful with bass and base. They mean different things.
Write approximately 12±0.5 ... not ... approximately 12.
Meter stick is American usage: metre rule is English. Spell checkers are either American or English. Be consistent. Note: traveling has either one or two l's. Be consistent.
5 Avoid big complicated words when a shorter simpler one has the right meaning, unless the long word has a special meaning and is common in physics conversation. For example: use superposition, when you mean that waves are added, and use interference fringes when you mean a line of bright spots of light. Avoid ambiguity. Very often there is only one word that has just the right meaning. Try to find it.
6 Avoid the anthropomorphic fallacy (pretending things are people). A computer does not help. Cardboard is not a forgiving material. A ball cannot want to be on the floor. Be careful with this one. Even some experienced science writers make this mistake when they are writing for the general public.
> Examples of the anthropomorphic fallacy
> Examples of writing that require attention
Go to the Essays and IB labs indexes in this CD. Read the edited versions of reports and essays. Use them as models, remembering that this is a long document written over time. It is not perfectly clean. Bring mistakes and weaknesses to my attention. Become a critical reader. Checklists ( for use with IB research reports for assessment )